Ecological character displacement (ECD) is caused by indirect competition between species for common resources such as food and nesting sites. It usually leads to a reduced overlap of resource necessities, i.e., ECD results in niche divergence. However, ECD can also cause niche convergence. ECD acts on traits that are associated with resource use, such as the morphology of beaks, jaws, body size, forearms, etc. ECD has two steps; the first is that the interspecific competition for limited resources creates a natural selection that favors those individuals that are proficient in portioning resources. This then pushes the populations to diverge adaptively by changing trait means or shrinking the trait variance. Interspecific competition is heralded as the main cause of ECD. ECD can be divided into three patterns of displacement: exaggerated divergence in sympatry, trait overdispersion, and species-for-species matching. Exaggerated divergence in sympatry is a situation where two species have a similar use of resources and phenotypes in allopatry but diverge in sympatry. Allopatry refers to the condition where populations or species are separated by physical barriers. Sympatry refers to the condition where two related species exist in the same geographical region and frequently encounter each other. Trait overdispersion occurs when many sympatric species of the same ecological guild exhibit ‘use of resource’ phenotypes that are more different than from one another than that is expected by chance. In this context, a guild refers to any group of species that exploit similar resources in similar ways. In the species-for-species matching pattern, independent and ecologically equivalent groups of species are found in similar habitats at different locations.
Character Displacement in Sticklebacks following a benthic vs. limnetic diet
Reproductive Character Displacement
Reinforcement is a process of natural selection process that strengthens and favors sexual isolation (thus, there exits strong discrimination in choosing mates). This occurs in response to a maladaptive hybridization, which happens after secondary contact has been made between two taxa. It has been demonstrated by researchers that pairs of sympatric species inevitably exhibit stronger sexual isolation than pairs of allopatric species, of the same genetic divergence. In addition, populations that are sympatric with a sibling species show greater discrimination against mating with that species than populations allopatric with it. Therefore, divergence in mating traits between closely related species is accentuated in sympatry and comparatively lesser between allopatric species. This divergence is called reproductive character displacement (RCD) and is caused by such reproductive interferences as courtship, mating, and hybridization between species. RCD reduces the frequency, and the cost of such interspecific interactions as selection favors those alleles that confer mating discrimination. RCD becomes synonymous with reinforcement when it raises the level of the sexual isolation between the hybridizing species. Examples of RCD include divergence in observable traits such as plumage, courtship signals (like birdsong), and activity schedules.
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